Europe is overwhelmingly Christian, and the
confessional division coincides closely with the language map. Catholicism was
associated more with the Romance languages speaking countries like France,
Spain, Italy and Portugal, whereas Protestantism was widespread in Germanic
languages speaking states like Germany, the UK, Scandinavia. Hence, Catholicism
was challenged and fractured from within. The process of Christianization
derived from two sources: Rome and Constantinople. Between the 5th
and 11th century the conversion to a sect dependent on the sequence
of arrival of the missionaries from Catholicism and Protestantism. In the years
1517 – 1648 the Protestant reformation, Catholic counterreformation and wars of
religion changed the balance and shaped the map of sects even more. At the same
period the Ottoman influx had also a significant impact on the configuration
and comprise of Muslim population in Europe.
The discussion about the distinction
between theology and sociology of religion has resulted in a basic explanation.
Theology is concerned with finding out which one of the religions the more
advanced and which one is the true prophet and God, whereas the later looks
into the history of religious events and admits that things could have been
other way around. For instance the early Council of Nicea, the uprising against
the 4th caliph Ali was key moments in the histories of Christianity
and Islam respectively. These are not accidents of history but the basic chronology
of religious developments that does not give supremacy of any belief system to
others.
There are three broad categories of all
systems of belief. The first one is totemism, that is not referred as a
religion and divided into three as zoomorphic, semi-zoomorphic and
semi-anthropomorphic. The first category refers to totems purely animal shaped,
the second one having the image of a living organism, while the last one refers
to partly human and partly animal totems. The next category is polytheism that
is generally anthropomorphic Gods and Goddesses. Lastly, monotheism is based on
one God that makes its voice heard through holy books. There is no human
substance and it is everywhere. In terms of the period of these belief systems,
totemism extends from the huntering-gathering era till the agrarian. Polytheism
and monotheism follow each other and the later begins 3000 years ago with
Judaism that can not defined as monotheistic for the first 1000 years of its
revive. This is shorter from what we know as civilization today.
Looking back to totemism, it can be
observed that its existence changes in every tribal society. Clans, tribes and
close kinship groups believe that they descent from the same origin or clan
ancestor, which distinguishes them from others. This ‘origin’ is perceived as
supernatural animal and giving life to the clan. Hunting of this particular
animal is forbidden except for one particular time of the year when it is
hunted and eaten to pass the life through the flesh. In addition, protecting
the totem from outsiders by not mentioning the real name of the totem was
crucial. These two rituals were reflected in the later monotheistic religions
as well. The function of the shaman is the mediation between totem ancestors
and the clan. Through going into a trance it is believed that the spirit
travels to the other world in the shape of totem and returns to its body in
this world. The change of shape led to the half animal half human shapes of the
totem statues. Although in ancient Rome and Greece the Gods and Goddesses were
fully anthropomorphic they usually had a favorite animal portrayed with them.
It is interesting to look at the process of downsizing of Gods. The most
important role was played by the political unification, since the clans came
together the pantheon of different totems have enlarged at the beginning and
became hierarchical in time when the nobility or the ruling class chose their
favorite God. The pantheons where the Gods were brought together became holy
places to which pilgrimage seasons were organized.
Comparing these monotheistic religions with
Eastern / Oriental belief systems of India, China and Japan we encounter many
differences. To begin with in contrast with monotheistic religions basing
themselves on revelation, oriental / eastern belief systems do not originate
from God’s words but teachings. There is no creator and no prophet as well. The
distinction between body and soul, afterlife and salvation as the key
components in monotheism, is non-existent in the others. Lastly, all tree
religions are monopolistic and exclusionist whereas the Eastern religions do
not have both of the characteristics. Looking at the big picture, all of the
religions aim to impose some roles, norms of behavior and propagate ethical
systems. Similar things can be said also for the monotheism-polytheism
distinction. Polytheistic systems are much more tolerant compared to
monotheism, it is normal for other gods to exist in the outer circle, there is
no insistence on single God with no equals. The only rule is that no stranger
can pollute out the temple, In addition, there are no missionary activities –
priesthoods exist but not trying to convert others. Cultural contact is the
only way to spread the belief system, not winning or losing battles. Whereas as
Cook has emphasized it is in the nature of monotheism to peak a quarrel.
The first monotheistic religion is Judaism
that has started around 2000 BC. Old testament stories survived with
repetition, edited, copied from generation to generation so it has survived and
changed over time. Later generations kept playing to conform with what they
believe is the true way. Hence there were layers of practices and beliefs
forming in 1500 – 2000 years. In the 6th c BC, Judaism crystalizes
and becomes clearly a monotheistic religion. The evidence comes from Babylonian
ruler Nebuchadnezzar’s records who has incorporated Jewish territory, deported
Jewish population to Mesopotamia and encountered the Jewish Bible statements
there is no other God but Yahweh. Cook claims that Yahweh gradually assumed its
dominance and only god to be worshipped. But before that it was more like
monolatry rather than monotheism as the existence of other Gods are not denied.
This Jewish Bible is written in Hebrew and its Koine Greek translation is known
as the Septuagint, and the temple priesthood systematized it. There are 13
points derived by Moses Maimonides as follows:
1.
existence of God
2.
God’s unity
3.
…’s spirituality and
incorporeality
4.
…’s eternity
5.
… alone
6.
…’s revelation through prophets
7.
moses
pre-eminent
8.
god’s law
given on Mt. Sinai
9.
the
immutability of the Torah
10. …’s forelknowledge of human actions
11. good / evil
12.
the coming of
the Jewish Messiah
13. the resurrection of the dead
Looking at the black points above, an
enormous similarity with other monotheistic religions can be traced.
Christianity comes approximately 600 years after Judaism and followed by Islam,
again after around 600 years after Christianity. The prophet of Christianity
Jesus was born in Bethlehem, went to Egypt since his life was under threat, and
came back to Nazareth. He was a Jew and spoke both Aramaic and Koine Greek.
Hence, while the first language of Jewish Bible is Hebrew the Christian Bible
is Koine Greek from the beginning, Later on translated into Latin. In later phases
while spreading Christianity he initiates a reform movement in Judaism,
defending the return to basics, restoration of our old beliefs and virtues.
Although in the Old Testament the second coming of a Messiah is mentioned, it
was disputed if Jesus was the one. Hence Christianity had to confirm the Old
Testament and added the New Testament consisting of four Gospels. The Gospels
are four stories told by four of the apostle: Saints Matthew, John. Luke, and
Mark, about the birth, teachings, miracles, passion and death of Jesus. A
separate section also talks about the acts and letters of apostles. It is
obvious that Christianity is mostly based on Jesus Christ as the central
component of the worship. He is seen as both human and divine, the son of God.
This feature distinguishes it from Judaism and Islam in which the division
between holy and divine is done clearly. Muhammad and Moses are considered as
humans and are not worshipped or prayed to.
Religions have changed externally in time
and in various geographies, and internally through different interpretations.
For instance Christianity became legal in the Roman Empire in legal in AD 330,
and was the official religion by 390. However it could not spread due to
collapse of the Roman Empire and barbaric invasions. Massive wave of
re-Christianization, of Germanic and Slavic people. Started when they settled
down 10th c. It has changed more dense and intense while acquiring a
much more militant characteristic, insisting on the monopoly of absolute truth.
In AD 476 all Christians are still Jews, some of them becoming Christian.
Former Jews now Christians are still operating within the heritage of Judaism –
chosen people of God and thus it was a national religion. Hence there was no
drive to spread it all over the world and it was not opening the gates to the
un-chosen people. But Christianity differed in time and started inviting people
who are not Jews, so could took off.
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